Introduction
While Chapter 8 has outlined the elements of outreach and capacity building needed to form a viable national and global SDI, this chapter provides some examples of SDI implementations from a national, regional, and global perspective. The documentation of case studies is an effective mechanism to help convey the underlying factors that led to the growth of spatial data infrastructures. This chapter will highlight some of the success stories, shortfalls, and issues that characterise the state of the National and Global Spatial Data Infrastructures today.
Contributors from both developed and developing countries have provided case studies for this chapter. Wherever possible, authors have attempted to cite the major factors leading to success or shortfalls in a particular case study. The reader should note that this chapter will grow to include greater comparative information as more case studies are examined and incorporated. For this first publication of the SDI Cookbook, single national and regional case studies are examined.
Local Case Study - Within nations, localities are increasingly addressing decision-making through the use of geographic information and tools. The ability for spatial data infrastructure to deal with local as well as broader national issues is essential. A case study from the United States involving crime management is highlighted as one of many examples of local communities that are benefiting from the investment in SDI towards improved community service. Our thanks go to Mr. John DeVoe of the US Department of Justice (john.devoe@usdoj2.gov) and the staff of the Baltimore Police Department for their contributions.
National Case Study - the Colombian experience in developing and harmonizing geographic information systems is examined. Its main purpose is to contribute to identify best practices in Spatial Data Infrastructures as a means to increase geographic information availability, access and use to support making decisions and to promote sustainable development. A team of authors from Colombia's IGAC provide a comprehensive assessment of the Colombian experience in establishing a national SDI. Acknowledgements go to Santiago Borrero Mutis (sborrero@igac.gov.co), Ivan Alberto Lizarazo Salcedo (ilizaraz@igac.gov.co), Dora Ines Rey Martinez (direy@igac.gov.co), and Martha Ivette Chaparro (mchaparr@igac.gov.co) for their contributions to this chapter.
Regional Case Study - A case study from the SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit, which is part of the SADC Regional Food Security Programme, facilitates training programmes and technical support in the field of remote sensing and GIS in support of early warning for food security and natural resources management. This case study is provided as an example of how a focus on critical regional issues yields elements of infrastructure valuable for cooperating nations. Camille A.J. van der Harten (cvanderharten@fanr-sadc.co.zw), Senior Adviser, SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit, Harare - Zimbabwe provides an outstanding overview of that effort, its successes, and issues.
Global Case Study - For the global case study, the authors reviewed the major organisations, systems, and processes that are operating to achieve one or more aspects of the Global spatial Data Infrastructure. Although a true GSDI is not a reality today, a review of the current areas of emphasis is in order. Thanks to the members of the Digital Earth Team Tim Foresman (foresman@umbc.edu) and Gerald Barton, and the University of California Santa Barbara / Global Map team (Jack Estes (estes@geog.ucsb.edu), Karen Kline (kline@geog.ucsb.edu) for their contributions.
Background, Context and Rationale
The reduction of crime in communities across the United States is a major goal to assure safe and liveable communities. Although crime types and rates vary from locality to locality, the use of geographic data and tools is rapidly becoming a key resource to better understand and more effectively deal with crime. In the United States, community safety and policing are primarily functions of local and state governments. Recently, Baltimore City, Baltimore County, and other neighbouring law enforcement organisations realised that cooperative analysis of crime trends regionally would reveal a more complete picture of crime trends. As a result, the City of Baltimore, Baltimore County and other police departments in the Mid-Atlantic area of the United States came together to target and reduce the amount of crime by identifying and implementing methods to standardise their approach to the management and use of crime data and related geospatial information.
Organisational Approach
In the early 1990's, the United States Department of Justice, recognizing the value of geospatial data and techniques in managing crime, established partnerships with local law enforcement organisations to illustrate the value of GIS applications in the identification, visualisation and analysis of crime trends locally and regionally. These early partnerships were also designed to show industry the potential market for applications to better address crime management. The success of these early efforts, led to the creation of larger regional partnerships to address crime issues using geospatial data and geospatial applications. Law enforcement organisations working collaboratively in the region helped the US Department of Justice develop the requirements for a Regional Crime Analysis GIS application. Participating communities agreed to use the RCAGIS crime mapping, analysis, and reporting applications developed under contract by the Criminal Division, United States Department of Justice. Additionally, Baltimore City applied for and received designation of this effort as a National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) Community Demonstration Project. This designation brought in additional support from the Federal Geographic Data Committee and the Vice President's National Partnership for Reinventing Government.
RCAGIS seamlessly integrates CrimeStat, a very powerful spatial statistic tool developed by Dr. Ned Levine, of Ned Levine and Associates. The RCAGIS programming code is available, free of charge, through the Criminal Division, United States Department of Justice homepage (http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/gis) . Through this cooperative partnership, the DOJ and local police departments in the Baltimore - Washington area standardised the format for crime incident data and the methods of mapping, reporting, and analysing crime.
The RCAGIS program has helped localities to improve collaboration on issues of mutual importance. The program illustrates to law enforcement staff the value of metadata and clearinghouses in improving the ability to inventory and share information. By standardizing data elements and the metadata that describes this data, law enforcement organisations have improved their ability to communicate issues across jurisdictional boundaries, see the broader implications of crime, and devise more comprehensive solutions to apprehend offenders, and to reduce crime trends overall. Finally, by using clearinghouse resources, law enforcement will be able to discover and apply additional environmental, social, and economic data sets to enhance police departments' crime analysis and tactical and strategic responses to crime, thereby reducing the amount of crime and residents' fear of crime in our communities.
Recommendations
Establish expanded partnerships - A broad multi-jurisdictional view of crime is often necessary to understand overall crime trends. Indeed issues related to crime, the environment and the economy are not typically contained within community boundaries. Partnerships and collaboration through the sharing of data, standards and processes enhances the ability to understand and manage patterns of crime that are significant to the larger area. Partnerships with the federal government provided expertise, training to deal with many issues, and also provided some funding to advance this effort as well.
Educate spatial data managers and users on the value of SDI practices - metadata, clearinghouses, and standardisation are concepts that until recently were very unfamiliar to the law enforcement community, and will not be readily adopted unless the appropriate level of education and outreach is applied to illustrate the value of metadata and standardisation to assure data accessibility, quality, availability, and overall management.
As with many nations around the world, the major drivers for geographic information infrastructure in Colombia stem from the nation's programs for governance to address national issues related to the environment, the economy, and social issues. Drivers also include private sector interests in the major areas of Colombia's Economy. Furthermore, Colombia understands that issues of national importance often extend beyond its borders, so the growth of the national infrastructure must accommodate collaboration regionally and potentially globally. This case study will focus on the efforts of Colombia to establish a national SDI, and discusses the steps Colombia has taken to assure SDI compatibility to address regional and global issues such as those raised via the UN Agenda 21.
Initiatives to coordinate SDI actions in Colombia at a national level face significant constraints like decreasing budgets, inter-organisational barriers, lack of high level support, limited capacity for research and development and lack of knowledge about the geographic information market, among others. Despite these restrictions, experience has shown that specific steps to define and implement a national geographic information strategy can be accomplished, providing that government agencies decide to work together, reduce costs, avoid duplication of efforts, and recognise the role that the private sector and academia can play. User demands can trigger the necessary partnerships and alliances to produce and share information.
The Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure (ICDE) is defined as the set of policies, standards, organisations and technology working together to produce, share, and use geographic information about Colombia in order to support national sustainable development. The ICDE is a young but promising, initiative. The lessons learned through its design and development may be useful. Due to the fact that it lacks a formal mandate to build the Colombian NSDI (as compared to the U.S. case), the ICDE has followed an empirical approach, in which design and development are not completely separated and well-defined stages are utilised. The ICDE has struggled to gain visibility and support while under pressure to show results.
The ICDE must be understood as an initiative that is under construction, in which practice is used to refine the concepts. Various government organisations, private companies, and universities are laying the ICDE building blocks. The IGAC, DANE, IDEAM, INGEOMINAS, ECOPETROL and the Ministry of the Environment, among others, have made valuable contributions. While work on standards and data production has been remarkable, yet still insufficient, reaching agreements on policies and high-level support seems to be the major area requiring further efforts. This document explains why the ICDE, the Colombian NSDI, was born and how its family is taking care of it and helping it to grow.
Quick Overview of Colombia
The republic of Colombia, located in northwestern South America, encompasses a total area of 2,070,408 square kilometres, of which 1,141,748 are on the mainland. In 1992, the population of Colombia was approximately 36.2 million people. The country is a rich mix of peoples, including Mestizo (European-Indian), European, African-European, African, African-Indian, and Indian descent. The main language in Colombia is Spanish, but over 200 indigenous Indian languages are also spoken.
Colombia has a democratic political system and Santa Fe de Bogota is the capital city. The major industries are textile production, coffee, oil, sugar cane and food processing. The GDP in Colombia is US $172 billion. Inflation currently runs at about ten percent.
Three Andean mountain ranges run north and south through the western half of the country (about 45% of the total territory.) The eastern sector is a vast lowland, which can be generally divided into two regions: a huge, open savannah in the north, and the Amazon in the south (approximately 400,000 sq. km.).
Colombia has the highest number of plant and animal species per unit area of any country in the world. The country's network of reserves includes 33 national parks, six small reserves, known as "santuarios de flora y fauna", two national reserves and one special natural area. Their combined area constitutes 7.9% of Colombian territory.
Geographic Information in Colombia
Most geographic information on the Colombian territory is produced by government agencies that have specific mandates. The DANE is responsible for conducting the census, both social and economic. The IDEAM is in charge of hydrology, meteorology, and environmental studies. The INGEOMINAS works in the area of geoscience, environmental mining, and nuclear energy. The IGAC carries out topographic mapping, cadastre, soil, and geographic activities. All these institutes are very experienced in their respective areas, both in terms of the time they have put in, as well as the amount of valuable information produced throughout the country. Over the past decade, pursuant to presidential decrees, these Colombian agencies have developed modernisation processes for structural and resource reorganisation in order to fulfill their institutional goals and the community's needs. New technology has been incorporated into the production flow, people have been trained, and agencies are furnishing digital products to users.
Aside from the above-mentioned agencies, some companies share a small, but increasing, portion of the geographic information market. They provide products and services to the government and private sector, and help to produce topographic and thematic mapping and develop GIS applications.
In the 1990's, an awareness of the benefits of geographic information started to grow among municipalities, environmental agencies, oil companies, and the utilities sector. Seeking to meet legal requirements1 or business challenges, some people turned their eyes toward geographic data. A demand for digital base maps was born and grew quickly, although not always supported by adequate funding. It has taken time to convince users that the government cannot provide new digital products for the low cost of duplication, as for analogue information.
National GIS Projects
With a view to fulfilling their mandates, government agencies are carrying out various initiatives to develop national information systems in the areas under their jurisdiction.
Environment Information System for Colombia (SIAC) - According to Law 99 of 1993 and Decrees 1277, 1600 and 1603 of 1994, the Ministry of the Environment shall lead the coordination of the National Environment Information System (SINA) and establish the Environment Information System (SIA), and the IDEAM shall manage the implementation and operation of the SIA and advise the CARs2 to do the same in their areas. Other research institutions (INVEMAR, SINCHI, John Von Neumann, Alexander Von Humboldt) shall contribute to system implementation throughout the national territory with the aim of providing timely and sufficient environmental information to support policies and decision-making.
At the present time, the Ministry of the Environment is initiating a system for the planning, design, and development process, to harmonise efforts and strengthen and consolidate the SIAC. This system targets water resources, pursuant to the National Environmental Policy, which establishes water as its principal focus. The Policy also involves the community in the development strategy through their participation in the area of information appropriation.
The National Environment Information System (SINA) - The IDEAM has developed the SINA's basic module and provides information in real-time about environmental status and changes. Some of its products are: Environment in Colombia, Natural and Socio-economic Impacts due to the Pacific Hot and Cold Phenomena - el Niño and la Niña, The National Water Study, Offer-Demand Relations and Sustainability Conditions, Vegetation and Land Use, Morphogenic Systems and the Stability of the Geological Morphostructure and Superficial Formations.
The National Geoscientific Information System (SING) - Under Decree 1129 of 1999, the INGEOMINAS shall conduct research and generate basic information for geoscientific knowledge and the improvement of the Colombian subsoil. To this end, the INGEOMINAS shall survey, obtain, compile, integrate, validate and provide in digital and standardised format, subsoil information, including geology, geophysics, geochemistry, geomechanics, non-renewable resources and geology-based hazard monitoring. The INGEOMINAS will develop the SING as an integral part of the Colombian Geographic Information System.
The INGEOMINAS has produced several digital atlases over the past few years, in the areas of geology, geochemistry, gravimetry, geological hazards, metallogenesis, geochemical anomalies and mining activity.
The National Geostatistical Information System (SAIG) - According to Decree 2118 of 1992, the DANE shall manage the SAIG. The SAIG fosters the integration of social, demographic and economic statistical information obtained from census taking, surveys and administrative records, using current technology to store, query and analyse information.
The SAIG engages in the following tasks: design and methodology for census-taking, surveys and research on social and economic data, such as quality of life, construction, national home surveys, the consumer price index, national population and housing census, and collection of information for planning; development and control. Other tasks include definition and updating samples, processing information, analysis, and publication of results.
The National Geostatistical Framework links statistical information with the corresponding geographic sites. It is made up by political / administrative groups and geographic sectors oriented toward statistical activities. It attempts to improve social welfare, sustainable development and Colombia's competitiveness.
The IGAC Geographic Information System (SIGAC) - Decree 2113 of 1992 empowers the IGAC to draft and update the Official Map of the Republic of Colombia, develop policy, and undertake national government programs in cartography, agrology, cadastre and geography. This is done through the production, analysis and distribution of geo-referenced environmental and cadastral information, which is aimed at supporting planning and territorial ordering processes.
The IGAC has developed the Integrated Geographic Information System, which is designed to build and maintain national digital databases in topography, soils and cadastre. It began to be implemented in 1995.
The conceptual model of the IGAC's (SIGAC) Integrated Geographic Information System included the following aspects:
Until now, the IGAC has made great efforts to bridge the gap in basic map availability and currency. Coping with adverse meteorological conditions and taking advantage of the new geo-information technologies, the IGAC is trying out new data sources, procedures, and products. Despite some achievements, more R&D is still needed. A great deal of topographic and cadastral digital maps have been produced, focused on 1:2.000 scales for cities and towns and 1:100.000 scales for rural areas.
The National Oil Company Information Infrastructure (GEODATA) - Recognizing that the current manner of conducting the oil business in Colombia is too expensive and time consuming, ECOPETROL has entrusted the ICP (its research center) with the task of defining policies and standards and developing an infrastructure to manage geographic information, according to new technologies and customised to company needs. Its most ambitious project has been the development of a distributed data repository to provide a common, high-quality warehouse for Colombian primary and interpreted petrotechnical data. The data warehouse will ultimately aim to be Colombia's official repository for petrotechnical data on oil exploration and production. Primary petrotechnical data includes all non-interpretative data that may be used by the industry in its day-to-day work.
The Coffee Information System (SICA): The Colombian Coffee Growers Federation (FEDERACAFE) is a non-profit institution. It was created in June of 1927 and currently unites almost 300,000 producers.
The FEDERACAFE has developed strategic plans to improve the competitiveness of Colombian coffee and to provide research and development programs on improved technologies for production, the post-harvest process, coffee quality, the management capacity of coffee producers, and marketing to increase the demand for Colombian coffee.
One of the programs that has been developed is the Coffee Information System (SICA). This system permits the coffee authorities, the Federation and the producers to base their work on strategic and updated information that allows them to design policies and programs to improve competitiveness, the sustainable development of Colombian coffee production, and the welfare of the coffee producers.
The SICA includes the following elements:
Despite the developments described above, it is clear that each institution has built its information systems independently and that national policies and guidelines were non-existent at the time they started these processes. Due to this, interorganisational links have not been strengthened as needed, the roles of the agencies have not been clarified, and analogue-digital data conversion activities may have been duplicated. Digital databases were built autonomously and problems soon arose: data were out-of-date and incomplete, heterogeneous in content and quality, poorly documented, hard to find and difficult to integrate. Client needs were not recognised as required. An awareness of these problems led to the need for standardisation.
First steps towards a national geographic information strategy
The IGAC, which is in charge of the national databases on topography, cadastre, soil and geography, developed in 1995 a geographic object classification scheme for use in different scales. Other institutions adopted the IGAC scheme and added their own objects. This was the first step to achieving order in-house. Around the same time, ECOPETROL, the national oil company, started its project Geodata, which focused on geographic data standards and metadata. Both initiatives pushed forward the creation of a national committee in charge of defining geographic information standards. Under the auspices of ICONTEC, the Colombian body for standardisation and certification, and with coordination by the IGAC, more than thirty entities from government, the private sector and academia contribute to this committee. Until now, efforts have been concentrated on geographic metadata, basic object cataloguing, quality, and terminology.
As user understanding of GIS capabilities grew, an understanding of the need for homogeneous and consistent data also grew. Government agencies began to understand their role was changing: they had to become information providers and not only data producers. Private companies started to share an emerging digital geographic information market. Partnerships developed to produce and update topographic and cadastral data. The IGAC and other institutions convinced some city authorities to fund digital database projects on a fifty-fifty cost sharing basis between municipalities and the Colombian government. The results demonstrated the benefits of sharing costs and information.
However, interorganisational cooperation alone could not accomplish SDI objectives, nor would it be done by Colombian agencies acting alone, without broader participation by industry, academia and local governments. Cooperative efforts would have to be augmented by national policies and guidelines to clarify the roles, responsibilities, priorities, and legal issues, such as copyright, prices, liability and custodianship.
A high level team drafted some government policies on information in 19963, producing policies that emphasised the need to manage information like a strategic national resource. These policies viewed the use of information technology as a means to promote social welfare and citizen service, and to link government agencies with outside sectors. Nonetheless, specific policies on geographic information were still missing.
In November 1998, an Inter-Institutional Committee was set up to create consensus on different topics. The government agencies in charge of geographic information production agreed to work jointly to define policies, guidelines and strategies to foster the production and publication of geographic data in Colombia and facilitate data integration, use and analysis by the agencies' information systems5. The committee also decided to promote carrying out actions to develop autonomous information systems in a coordinated and harmonised way as integral part of a national geographic information system. The Committee agreed to coordinate actions in the following areas:
As noted above, action by the Ministry of the Environment, and its viewpoint as a user, triggered the first interorganisational meetings and helped diminish some communication barriers. Major government producers continued to look for better ways to interact and gained valuable insights. However, their collective desire to produce a document with organisational strategies by the end of 1999 could not be achieved. The restructuring process of state institutions that the Colombian government began in mid-1999 focused the agencies' attention inwards, as they struggled against functional instability and turned the inter-agency activity to their own operational issues6.
In addition, "spontaneous" regional interorganisational initiatives are emerging. Two noteworthy cases are the Aburra Valley Geographic Information System (SIGMA) and Bucaramanga Tecnópolis - Ciudad Digital (the geographic information system for the Metropolitan Area of Bucaramanga). In both cases, municipal authorities and utility companies (water, sewage system, natural gas, telephone, power) agreed to jointly plan, gather and update basic geographic information to support local decision-making. Major geographic data producers have been invited to support technical definitions, but they are not the project leaders.
The Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure (ICDE) is defined as the set of policies, standards, organisations, and technology working together to produce, shares, and uses geographic information on Colombia in order to support national sustainable development. Main ICDE components may be defined as: administrative information policies and guidelines, geographic information standards including metadata, fundamental data (framework), and a national geographic information network.
The ICDE has been oriented to addressing development on a priority basis, initially emphasizing two basic areas:
Progress
With respect to the implementation of the ICDE components, the major agreements to date include the following:
Although significant progress has been made, many issues remain to be addressed in order to accelerate the implementation of the ICDE:
In developing countries, government agencies in charge of geographic information have the combined challenge of improving performance, learning to cooperate through partnerships within the limitation of budget restrictions, and satisfying increasing user demands. Otherwise, they will be unable to accomplish their goal of providing valuable information to support increased knowledge and national policy. A national spatial data infrastructure initiative seems to be the most suitable strategy to promote long-term multi-sector alliances, not only among government agencies, but also with the private sector and academia, so that all the stakeholders win.
The Colombian Spatial Data Infrastructure (ICDE) is a sound initiative for the promotion of geographic information production with national coverage that will encourage mass use by society and improve sustainable development. Some achievements have been attained and interorganisational barriers are being broken. The ICDE "empirical" approach has been the way to cope with a challenging context and to gain consensus while demonstrating the practical benefits. Nonetheless, the time has come to gain high-level support. The incipient partnerships must be strengthened and coordinated. It appears clear that it is necessary to establish a national geographic information coordination center with a national mandate to guarantee that all participants continue in the right direction.
Positive results should encourage the ICDE stakeholders to renew their efforts, taking into account that initial success depends on the following:
Management: Major producers and users of geographic information must be in charge of running the initiative in a coordinated way and based on national needs. A framework for information management must be established as a key principle to govern interorganisational behaviour.
Participation: A very large number of public and private institutions, non-governmental organisations, academic groups and research centers, or think tanks, must be included. A careful and user-oriented cost-benefit study must be undertaken.
Support: The ICDE must find support from government at high levels to ensure the necessary definitions and funds for the project.
Technical cooperation: The ICDE must be based on lessons learned from most advanced NSDIs, and should be linked strongly to regional and global initiatives to ensure that nations can jointly address issues extending beyond national boundaries.
Research and Development: Appropriate technology needs to be adopted or adjusted through research and development activities.
Recommendations
A compatible SDI can encourage region-wide collaboration on issues that often disregard national boundaries. While formal regional SDI initiatives are just recently in the discussion or formation stages, there are a number of illustrations of how a regional Spatial Data Infrastructure approach can make a positive difference in dealing with often-difficult issues such as food security. The Permanent Committee on Geographic Infrastructure for Asia & the Pacific is just one example of a regional SDI implementation addressing the joint spatial issues of member nations.
The Southern African Development Community (SADC), which was established in 1980 as SADCC, is promoting regional cooperation in economic development. SADC member nations include: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. SADC has adopted a Programme of Action covering cooperation in various sectors, including food, agriculture and natural resources management. Its secretariat is formed by the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources (FANR) Development Unit in Harare, Zimbabwe. To effectively address the issues of early warning for food security and natural resource management, a regional spatial database has been developed to assure the timely collection, management and dissemination of critical information and knowledge to the SADC Member-States and other stakeholders.
The SADC Regional Remote Sensing Unit (RRSU) started as the Regional Remote Sensing Project (RRSP) in 1988 and received technical assistance from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations and financial support from the Governments of Japan and the Netherlands. The technical assistance from the FAO came to an end in June 1998 and since that time SADC RRSU has been gradually integrated in the organisational structure of the SADC FANR Development Unit. The RRSU is financed by the SADC Member States and receives additional financial and technical assistance through a bilateral agreement between SADC and the Government of the Netherlands. The RRSU is a centre of technical expertise, which can facilitate training programmes and technical support in the field of remote sensing and GIS in support of early warning for food security and natural resources management. On an operational basis the RRSU is using low resolution high temporal satellite information to produce information products on rainfall occurrence and vegetation development which is being distributed through the Regional and National Early Warning Units, but also through its own publications, reports and web-site. A variety of training courses and national and regional workshops are organised to create a core of trained experts in the SADC region. An important activity of the RRSU is the development of spatial databases, which are being distributed on CD. The RRSU database includes at present all the basic thematic information (administrative boundaries, infrastructure, land cover hydrology, soils, elevation etc.), as well as the satellite image archive, agricultural statistics, and climate information. In order to develop these information systems further, the RRSU has strategic partnerships with a number of institutes in the SADC region, but also in Europe and the USA. The RRSU spatial database is recognised as a regional (and often a national) standard, and because of this the RRSU is a recognised partner in a number of EIS related activities in the SADC region. At a regional level the RRSU collaborates with the South African National Spatial Information Framework (NSIF) on the development of metadata, which will have a regional outlook.
Genesis of the Regional Early Warning Infrastructure
From the time of its establishment, the RRSU has been working on the use of satellite information to monitor rainfall occurrence and vegetation development in support of early warning for food security. The satellite data covers the whole SADC region and the operational pixel size of the raster images is 7.6 km. With the increased use of GIS technology and the availability of ever-faster computers and more user-friendly GIS software programs, there was a need to harmonise and standardise spatial data sets, not only the raster satellite images, but also the vector database.
In the early nineties most digital spatial data available in the SADC countries originated from small projects. Spatial data available from the Surveyor General Offices was often not in digital format, or in an inaccessible digital format. As a result, many Government offices, small projects, universities, NGO's, started to digitise their own spatial databases.
One of the tasks of the RRSU is to introduce GIS technology. The main problem it faced during the introduction of this technology in the region was the lack of a consistent spatial database for the SADC region. For example, national and sub-national administrative boundaries hardly existed in digital format, or were incomplete. For existing data, there was no cross-boundary compatibility. Other data on infrastructure, basic land use, and hydrology did not exist or was scarce. A soil map had been prepared for a number of SADC countries, but the digital format used made it impossible to use the data for further GIS analyses. The satellite images in raster format from the Meteosat satellite (for climate monitoring) and NOAA satellite (vegetation monitoring) were in a rare geographic projection, the Hammer Aitoff projection, which was hardly supported by any of the than more popular GIS software programs.
The task at hand for the RRSU was to start a number of activities to develop standards for the digital databases and the objective was to develop a standard raster and vector database for the SADC region, which would allow easy use and analytical procedures in a GIS environment and facilitate regular updates.
Development was accomplished by the SADC RRSU. Technical partners in the development were the Office of Arid Land Studies of the University of Arizona, and the University of Stellenbosch. Both Universities were responsible for technical tasks, which were implemented under a contractual agreement. Development of the digital spatial databases involved the processing of data, creation of basic data layers, preparation of documentation, and the development of the system on transportable media with a user-interface to view and analyse the data.. As a starting point, several layers of the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) were used, as well as the Africa Data Sampler (ADS) prepared by the World Resources Institute (WRI, Washington - USA). The WRI provided the RRSU with a pre-release of the ADS in 1994 in order to facilitate a first review of the available data. The internationally available data was merged with existing national digital data sets. Where necessary, hard-copy maps were digitised, corrected and georeferenced. This was done by the University of Arizona, while at a later stage the University of Stellenbosch was contracted to review and correct the soil database.
The RRSU was responsible for the processing of all satellite image raster data into a 6-minute geographic projection. Using this standard format, data from different satellites, or the same satellite, but received by different data acquisition systems, are in the same geographic format and can be used together with the vector data in a wide range of GIS applications.
Since 1994, the development has gone through several phases and has resulted in a uniform and standard satellite (Meteosat and NOAA) image database; a standard and uniform thematic vector database at the scale of 1:1million. A first version of the vector database was released on CD in 1995. In June 1997 the first version of the "RRSU CD" was released, which included also all satellite data, agricultural statistics, and basic climate information. An update was released in March 1998. The RRSU CD also includes a software facility to view and analyse the data, called "WinDisp". This program was developed with financial support of a number of partners, including the RRSU. A next release is expected in the first half of 2000. More recently, in June 1999, the RRSU has produced a second CD with a detailed regional climate database in raster and tabular format, including information on rainfall, temperature and evapotranspiration.
In addition to this, the Harare based: Aquatic Resource Management for Local Community Development Programme (ALCOM), used the hydrology layers from the RRSU spatial database to develop a comprehensive hydrological data base and watershed map for Southern Africa which is fully compatible with the standard format established by the RRSU.
Other major stakeholders in the development phase included: (i)The National Early Warning Units (NEWU's); and (ii) the National Meteorological Departments (NMD's) in the SADC countries who played an important role in evaluating the data sets and provided suggestions for corrections or better data. Other major data contributors included organisations such as: (i) the World Resources Institute; (ii) USGS Eros Data Center; (iii) FAO; (iv) UNEP GRID; and (v) the USAID Famine and Early Warning System (FEWS). Regional or national level data was provided by: (i) the NEWU's; (ii) NMD's; (iii) National Remote Sensing Centre's; (iv) Environmental Councils; and (v) various Government Departments in the SADC member states. User beneficiaries include Government institutes; Ministries; national, regional and international organisations; private trading and industrial sector; banking and finance groups; large-scale and small-scale farming organisations; and NGO's.
Review and evaluation of the effort for meeting the needs of SADC members was performed by the SADC RRSU; the National Early Warning Units and National Meteorological Departments in the SADC countries. The review and evaluation process included making data available for evaluation; conducting workshops/meetings to introduce the databases; collection of evaluation comments/reports; and ensuring incorporation of corrections/additions.
Distribution of the database, tools, meta-data, and viewing and analysing software was accomplished by the RRSU. The RRSU make data available in a user-friendly format on CD, sponsor workshops/meetings and maintain an internet web-site to create and maintain awareness, encourage and act on suggestions and recommendations, and are responsible for regular updates of the data bases. The new historical database was distributed to all contact points in the SADC Member States. Backstopping missions and regional workshops were used to inform the contact points about the changes and the characteristics of the new data format.
Traditionally, Internet accessibility in Africa has been significantly low compared to other regions of the world. Although Internet accessibility is improving rapidly in the SADC region, the RRSU will continue to distribute the data on CD. The reason for this is that: (i) the size of the RRSU spatial data sets are to big to be used operationally over the Internet (even with high speed access), and (ii) using the data structure on the RRSU CD and the include software, the data can be viewed and analysed. However, at present the RRSU is improving its local Internet connectivity through the installation of a radio-link to one of the major Internet Service Providers (ISP) in Harare. With this installation in place FANR (and the RRSU in particular) will have the possibility to offer their data bases on-line over the Internet using their own server capability. However, it should be noted that even when data is offered over the Internet: (i) many stakeholders will still have limited access; and (ii) the specific analytical capability offered on the RRSU CD will not be available.
Users include many of the stakeholders noted above, which include the National Early Warning Units and National Meteorological Departments in the SADC countries. A range of government institutes; Ministries; national, regional and international organisations; private trading and industrial sector; banking and finance groups; large-scale and small-scale farming organisations; and NGO's use the system as well.
Finally, although the RRSU used contractual agreements with the University of Arizona and the University of Stellenbosch for development, collaboration with other partners was basically established through informal agreements. Data was normally provided as part of a mutual agreement, in that the RRSU would correct/update the data sets and return it in the new format to the data providers.
Programme Successes and Issues
The success is obvious. The RRSU databases provided on CD are in high demand. The capability is considered by many to be the regional standard and even in many SADC countries it is considered to be the best and most complete data set available. However, there is no formal regional SDI structure for the SADC region, though informal initiatives are undertaken to reach consensus. A good example is the collaboration between SADC RRSU and the National Spatial Infrastructure Framework (NSIF) in Pretoria - South Africa. Together with a number of other stakeholders in SADC, and the remainder of Africa, a number of activities are being launched to formalise a SDI policy body.
On behalf of the SADC EIS Network, the SADC Environment and Land Management System (ELMS) has been working on a data policy document, which will be available by early 2000.
In conclusion, the RRSU database development essentially introduced regional standards, which are now being adopted by SADC member countries. Although the standardisation efforts were driven largely by the need to establish viable RRSU databases for early warning for food security, is clear that there are more potential applications of the data against different issues (such as natural resources management). The RRSU spatial databases were prepared in response to critical and specific needs for the SADC member nations with regards to early warning for food security. Without a clearly defined and consistent SDI nationally and regionally, the RRSU worked with members and stakeholders to establish the core infrastructure components needed to accomplish development and implementation objectives. The following is a chronology of events and actions completed to complete the Early Warning effort:
A solid, harmonised and uniform regional spatial database contributes to an improved information in support of managing scarce resources, which are required to secure food security and human well being in the region. In addition, the FAO Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) are using the data from the RRSU spatial databases. Moreover, the GIEWS Internet web site links directly into the SADC FANR Web-site, a good example of sharing information and not duplicating it!
Conclusions
The RRSU database activity has helped focus the SADC region on establishing the basic elements of a national and regional SDI. However, further progress toward a healthy and responsive regional SDI will depend on the resolution of a number of important issues. Several of the major issues facing the region are summarised below:
Telecommunications Infrastructure - Although the initial RRSU spatial database program has focused on establishing standards for data exchange, efforts are underway to establish improved dissemination capabilities via the Internet. However, until the telecommunications infrastructure is more available to stakeholder organisations, SDI delivery will be limited to physical products, information and services such as the CD-ROM based applications and data associated with the RRSU program. However, it should be note that the RRSU spatial database a rather big in size and in order to work with the data on an operational basis the CD-ROM will be the most applicable medium for distribution.
National and Regional SDI Policy - From and organisational and policy point of view, formal SDI policies and practices as the national and regional level are still forming. At this stage there is a need to create higher level of awareness of the benefits of a compatible SDI for the region and its nations. Furthermore, there should be a formal review or survey of the specific state of each member nation in terms of SDI development or plans. The RRSU took every opportunity to demonstrate the need for a uniform SADC database. And, much of the RRSU's success has been accomplished through informal contacts, which have contributed to the process of awareness and willingness to share critically important data sets to this regional initiative.
Data ownership and pricing policy - There are still unresolved issues regarding data ownership and pricing policies. This has been particularly true with climate data. The NMD's in the SADC region are following the advise of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) that climate data should be made available on a commercial basis. Since the NMD's are SADC institutes they have made data available to the RRSU in order to develop a regional tabular database and create climate (raster) layers to be used for analytical purposes and research. The RRSU is not in a position to distribute these tabular data sets or climate layers. What will be done is that the RRSU will train the NMD's in the concept of creating these databases and data layers. The NMD's will than be able to distribute the databases.
Recommendations
Today, there are a number of major initiatives that address one or more of the components of the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure as defined by the GSDI Committee in March 1999. Indeed, the GSDI's success is dependant on the successes and compatibility that many of these programs bring to the global marketplace - technology, data, standards, resources, organisational mission, and distribution. This section of outlines some of the major the contributors toward a GSDI. The Digital Earth Initiative, launched in the United States, China and other nations is reviewed as an example of a program that has the potential to focus and accelerate research and development programs needed to achieve the vision of a Digital Earth (www.digitalearth.gov) and the critical supporting infrastructures needed at the local, national, and global levels. Finally, this section includes a discussion of remaining areas of challenge toward the formation of a pervasive GSDI.
GSDI Defined
At the 2nd GSDI Conference in 1997, the multi-national GSDI Steering Group defined the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure as:
"... The policies, organisational remits, data, technologies, standards, delivery mechanisms, and financial and human resources necessary to ensure that those working at the global and regional scale are not impeded in meeting their objectives..."
An Overview of GSDI Infrastructure Elements
Given this definition, it is important to note that a number of programs address various aspects of the GSDI at a global level. This section summarises some of the major programs that have contributed to a Global Spatial Data Infrastructure. This list is by no means exhaustive, and in fact has been abbreviated to provide examples of the work that is being accomplished towards a GSDI.
For example, the International Steering Committee for Global Mapping is working to produce a Global Map, to be released in 2000. The United Nations has had in place since the 1980s a Global Resource Inventory Database and other similar resources. The International Geosphere Biosphere Programme is working to provide global environmental data sets to scientists. The Open GIS Consortium (www.opengis.org) is working to promote technological and computing advances that can support the development and use of environmental data and their accompanying infrastructures. The International Standards Organisation Technical Committee 211 (www.statkart.no/isotc211/welcome.html) is developing a metadata standard.
The International Steering Committee for Global Mapping (ISCGM) (www1.gsi-mc.go.jp/iscgm-sec/index.html) was created as a response to Agenda 21 from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Chapter 40 of Agenda 21 was a call for global environmental data. As a result, the Japanese Geographical Survey Institute/Ministry of Construction took the lead on the project and formed the ISCGM in 1994. Membership in ISCGM is comprised of representatives from national mapping agencies, nongovernmental agencies, and academia. The result is a project involving sixty-five different national mapping agencies and other organisations from every continent on the earth. The goal is production of Global Map, which will contain elevation, vegetation land use, drainage systems, transportation networks, and administrative boundaries, all at the nominal scale of 1:1,000,000. In the process, focus on a strategic plan, specifications, and data policy has been necessary.
In addition to UNCED, the United Nations has other organisations that play a role in the creation and dissemination of environmental data. Often, these organisations have mandates to create and make these data available. The primary environmental data organisation of the UN that comes to mind is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Resource Inventory Database (GRID) (www.grid.unep.org). GRID was formed "to assist UNEP and its partners by contributing environmental data and information, as well as methodological techniques for handling such data, to enhance the scientific basis for decision making and help advance sustainable development initiatives." GRID is a network of sites located around the world, all of which provide environmental data. UNEP/GRID is composed of a variety of sites (Arendal, Norway; Bangkok, Thailand; Christchurch, New Zealand; Denmark; Geneva, Switzerland; Kathmandu, Nepal; Moscow, Russia; Nairobi, Kenya (headquarters); Ottawa, Canada; Sao Jose dos Campos, Brazil; Sioux Falls, USA; Tsukuba, Japan; Warsaw, Poland). Each site provides some global data sets, but most often, they have a specific focus. For example, the Kathmandu site focuses primarily on mountain related issues and data.
In addition to UNEP/GRID, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (www.unesco.org) has played a role in the development of global soils databases. In addition to UNESCO, the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (www.fao.org) played a leading role in the development of the 1:5,000,000 global soils database in the 1970s. FAO also has several programs within its jurisdiction, including the Global Information and Early Warning System, which "monitors the crop and food outlook at global and national levels to detect emerging food shortages and assess possible emergency food requirements." The FAO's Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) is a decadal tree census, and is used to help determine rates of deforestation. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (www.undp.org) also has an interest in global data set development efforts and has supported research in this direction.
The International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) is a programme within the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). Within the IGBP is the Data and Information System (IGBP-DIS) (http://www.cnrm.meteo.fr:8000/igbp/index.html). The goals of IGBP-DIS are "to describe and understand the interactive physical, chemical and biological processes that regulate the total Earth system, the unique environment that it provides for life, the changes that are occurring in this system, and the manner in which they are influenced by human actions."
IGBP research currently focuses on six key questions that are addressed by eight Core Projects:
The OpenGIS Consortium (www.opengis.org) is an organisation "whose mission is to promote the development and use of advanced open systems standards and techniques in the area of geoprocessing and related information technologies."
The International Standards Organisation Technical Committee 211 (ISO/TC211)
(www.statkart.no/isotc211/welcome.html) goal is "standardisation in the field of digital geographic information." According to their web site:
A cube illustrates the contributions and relationships of the various organisations around the world that have helped shape the GSDI. National and regional SDI efforts represented on the one side of the cube illustrate the major resources, technology, metadata / data standards, and best practices shared internationally. Many of the standards, technologies and practices have been adopted or have influenced international standards are shown on a second face of the cube. On the third face of the cube are organisations and activities, which have contributed to specific areas of the GSDI. FAO / GRID have produced global soils data, the Global Map aims to provide a consistent global set of geographic coverages, along with the commitment of nations to maintain the data. The Open GIS Consortium and International Standards Organisation bring data and metadata standards to the global community for use by all nations and organisations.
Indeed, the efforts of these organisations have yielded key elements of the GSDI, many of which have become part of the overall GSDI reference environment needed to help gain compatibility at a transnational and global level. However, much more work needs to be accomplished to address the remaining technology, policy, and resource issues that are limiting the implementation of the GSDI. The Digital Earth initiative is discussed below as one example of an activity focused on addressing some of the major challenge areas related to GSDI.
A United States Digital Earth Interagency Working Group developed consensus that the Digital Earth Initiative involves a national and international effort to plan and build a cooperative use, Internet-based infrastructure to use vast quantities of geo-referenced data and information resources, Earth science data, and cultural and historic data. This query based and visually oriented data will be used by federal, state, local and tribal government communities, academia, and the private sector for scientific applications, practical decision-making, education, journalism, and other citizen accessible applications. As user interface prototypes become available, it will also be possible to interact with Digital Earth through Internet portals around the country, and obtain a better level of access and interoperability with the Earth's geospatial, social, and economic data (www.digitalearth.gov).
Success of Digital Earth is directly correlated to the soundness of the infrastructure it uses as a foundation. In addition, myriad protocols and standards arriving with the World Wide Web must be accounted for in the development process. Network infrastructure for Digital Earth will be based on the U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure (GSDI). Leveraging of these programs is required to ensure full utilisation of best practice for creation of a core infrastructure.
One of the major challenges for Digital Earth is to construct the organisational structure that will enable citizens, industry, academia, and government interaction in developing the initiative. These communities must then coordinate the focus of research and development requirements to create the Digital Earth. Identification of technology, organisational, policy, and other barriers to success needs to be well articulated among the various organizing bodies to better implement solutions. The Digital Earth initiative will work to focus the resources of its partner organisations to accelerate solutions to barriers that prevent or limit the achievement of the Digital Earth vision.
The Digital Earth must also achieve a strong public-private partnership to link industry and other non-government organisations with government. Government agents must continue to conduct policy and technical meetings to support the PPP and the international community. At present, the U.S. has a federal government structure in place and is working with industry, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and academia to nurture a sustaining membership for the PPP. At the international level, the Chinese have instituted the international Digital Earth symposium (the first held in Beijing, December 1999, with 25 countries) to be held biannually.
A characteristic of Digital Earth for outreach and education is the public engagement value through the application of impressive 3D visualisation and immersive-interactive computer technology display stations. Museums have experienced much success in capturing the public's attention with Digital Earth displays that provide global perspectives of the planet using satellite monitoring technology. As the demonstration, test beds, and scenarios increase the Digital Earth content, the public, including industry and education, can be expected to increase awareness and support of this initiative. This enhances support of the cross cutting program, that is GSDI and NSDI, which have less connectivity with the popular media.
More information on the Digital Earth Initiative can be found at www.digitalearth.gov . A draft version of the Digital Earth Reference Model (DERM) can be found at www.digitalearth.gov/derm/ .
Summary - Furthering the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure
The case studies and recommendations in this chapter, along with the information provided elsewhere this document have detailed the many initiatives underway that are contributing towards the objectives of the GSDI. However, much more work needs to be accomplished if the GSDI is truly to be a global resource from which all nations and organisations can access resources to build compatible infrastructures. Further advancements in data, standards, delivery, and technology are needed. However, a much more focused effort needs to be placed on outreach and education, resources, policy and legal issues related to SDI development if GSDI objectives are to be achieved.
In responding to these needs, the GSDI Steering Group has initiated a number of initiatives in calendar year 2000 to further advance the objectives of the GSDI:
Business Case Study - Emphasis is being placed on the development of a Business Case for Spatial Data Infrastructures. The study will identify the economic, social, environmental, and disaster management benefits that can be achieved through development of compatible national and regional SDI's, and the global SDI.
Address Legal and Economic Issues- The GSDI Steering Group has formed a Legal and Economic working group to focus on addressing the implications and potential solutions to legal and economic (funding) mechanisms that underpin the GSDI
Improve Outreach and Communications - the Communication and Awareness Working Group will focus on developing and implementing the programs necessary to raise awareness, articulate the value and secure additional support for the GSDI.
Your support of the Committee and working groups is encouraged. Nations must be able to establish Spatial Data Infrastructures that address internal matters of concern, while providing the ability to work at the transnational and global levels to address the important issues such as those outlined by the UN Agenda 21, the Kyoto Protocol. Please contact us at www.gsdi.org, and help us achieve our goals. Together, we can establish and SDI that allows us all to act locally, nationally, and globally.